Jamaica Kincaids The Autobiography Of My Mother - 1735 Words

No one is born misogynistic. Misogyny is a taught practice. The main beneficiary of these unvoiced teachings are women themselves. Misogyny is not always displayed as an direct act of discrimination, it can manifest itself as the manipulation of another woman in order to get what you want or to move higher on the ladder of success. In Jamaica Kincaid’s â€Å"The Autobiography of my Mother†, the protagonist, Xuela, encounters a woman, Madam Labatte, that misuses her jurisdiction over Xuela for her own selfish desires. In comparison, â€Å"Tracks† by Louise Erdrich introduces us to Pauline, who exploits a young, beautiful girl, Sophie, for a different set of selfish desires. Pauline and Sophie’s relationship and Madame Labatte and Xuela’s†¦show more content†¦To possess is to have complete control over, it can also be used in a spiritual sense which conjures thought of her previous capitalization of the word â€Å"Him†. Their sordid â €Å"love† story has changed her into the woman Xuela meets, miserable and â€Å"defeated† (Kincaid 65). Pauline’s loneliness is not the product of a failed love story. Instead, Pauline has always struggled to find her place in the world. The community of Native American tribes in North Dakota that she lives in have isolated and refused to accept her because of her bloodline as one of the despised Puyats, â€Å"We never knew what to call her, or where she fit or how to think when she was around. So we tried to ignore her† (Kincaid 39). Fleur, a woman whom Pauline admires and envies, marries Eli. Pauline, in competition with Fleur, attempts to seduce Eli which results in another rejection and her feelings for him becoming conflicted, she says after his dismissal: â€Å"So I both turned from him and desired him, in hate.† (Erdrich 75) To alleviate the loneliness and pain, instead of looking towards the men in their lives who have hurt them, they look towards the young girls for a solution, Xuela and Sophie. Both women seek self-preservation through the girls in some way while simultaneously attempting to liveShow MoreRelated Language in Jamaica Kincaids Autobiography of My Mother Essay703 Words   |  3 PagesUse of Language in The Autobiography of My Mother  Ã‚  Ã‚   Language. It is the way words flow into sentences, which flow into paragraphs, which flow into novels. It is the ability of the author to create an intricate web of plot, emotion, symbolism, and relationships through only words. In The Autobiography of My Mother , Jamaica Kincaid uses language in a way that is very simplistic, yet highly effective. Her writing is direct and to the point. There is neither flowery wording not complex sentenceRead More Abandonment in Jamaica Kincaids Autobiography of My Mother Essay examples728 Words   |  3 PagesAbandonment in Jamaica Kincaids Autobiography of My Mother Xuela, the protagonist of Jamaica Kincaids novel, The Autobiography of My Mother , comments, I felt I did not want to belong to anyone, that since the one person I would have consented to own me had never lived to do so, I did not want anyone to belong to me (112). The outward coldness of this statement is clearly observed, but it is the underlying statement Xuela is making that is truly a significant theme within the novel; XuelasRead MoreXuelas Character in Jamaica Kincaids Autobiography of My Mother959 Words   |  4 Pages  Many critics of The Autobiography of my Mother have remarked on the unrealistic facets of Xuelas extremist character. Her lack of remorse, her emotional detachment, her love of the dirty and impure, and her consuming need for total control over everyone and everything around her give her an almost mythic quality. A more well-rounded, humanistic character would have doubts and failings that Xuela does not seem to possess. In light of Xuelas deep-seated resen tment of authority, stubborn love ofRead MoreEssay about Girl/Woman Work Socio-Historical Critique1439 Words   |  6 Pagesinteresting poetry or stories. Two phenomenal women, Maya Angelou and Jamaica Kincaid portray two different points of view in their works of literature. A lot of things can contribute to their differences, but in particularly their upbringing is a major cause of their variances. In Jamaica Kincaid’s â€Å"Girl,† a young girl has the â€Å"rules of the world† drilled into her head by her scolding mother while in Maya Angelou’s â€Å"Woman Work† a mother faces the adversities of her life on her own. With such differentRead MoreAfrican Literature and Culture1447 Words   |  6 Pagesearlier works, the female gender was often perceived as â€Å"the Queen Mother.† Many African writers portray women in traditional roles whereas articles written in the past few decades analyze male-female relationships with a more feminist a pproach. This paper will analyze articles by leading African writers concerning the representation of the male-female relationship. In 1997, Jamaica Kincaid’s book entitled The Autobiography of My Mother opened the eyes of readers to the life of the protagonist and narratorRead MoreNegotiating Halls Caribbean Identity in Kincaids Annie John3215 Words   |  13 PagesCaribbean Identity in Kincaids Annie John In his article Negotiating Caribbean Identities, Stuart Hall attempts to relay to the reader the complications associated with assigning a single cultural identity to the Caribbean people. Even though the article is intended by the author to represent the Caribbean people as a splicing of a number of different cultures, the processes Hall highlights are noticeable on an individual scale in the main character of Jamaica Kincaids novel, Annie John. AnnieRead MoreEssay on The Mother-Daughter Relationship in Lucy by Jamaica Kincaid1452 Words   |  6 PagesThe mother-daughter relationship is a common topic throughout many of Jamaica Kincaids novels. It is particularly prominent in Annie John, Lucy, and Autobiography of my Mother. This essay however will explore the mother-daughter relationship in Lucy. Lucy tells the story of a young woman who escapes a West Indian island to North America to work as an au pair for Mariah and Lewis, a young couple, and their four girls. As in her othe r books—especially Annie John—Kincaid uses the mother-daughter relationshipRead MoreAnalysis Of Jamaica Kincaid s The Autobiography Of My Mother Supports Xuela s Self Discovery Through Boundary Crossing1914 Words   |  8 PagesPrompt #3: Discuss how the motif of garments in Jamaica Kincaid’s The Autobiography of My Mother supports Xuela’s self-discovery through boundary crossing. From the point of view of Xuela Claudette Desvarieux, Jamaica Kincaid presents a powerful account of how race, gender, class, and the power of the individual intermingle and clash in colonial society. This paper will examine the role of garments in the novel and how they contribute to Xuela’s view of society. Although I can easily expand theRead MoreAnalysis Of The Poem My Mother Breed By Anita Desai1701 Words   |  7 PagesMother Nature nurtures the feminine soul in the abyssal waters that she liberates from the depravities of human civilization. The sedative spirit of the ocean and her progenies nourish the human psyche with the inspiration to pursue individuality and independence. Patriarchal contaminations of societies submerge the unifying realm of female emancipation; masculine sovereignty suffocates the woman’s voice in the silence of the sacred seas. Secular literature documents the exclusion of the female gender

Gender Roles Have A Change Over Time - 1318 Words

Throughout history, gender roles have been the foundation that determines the course of a civilization. These gender roles have undergone a change over time. It is important for every society to re-evaluate its preconceived ideas of gender and determine if that is still the norm for their society. When people think of gender roles we typically have set stereotypes in our head of what that means. Much of the time, what we believe, is not what is actually true. It is often argued what is right and what is wrong. The gender of a person is the masculine or feminine attributes of that individual with respect to the psychological and biological role in society. (Magar, 2009) A gender role can be defined as the way that a person lives in society with respect to its lifestyle. It can be argued that over time the major differences between men and women’s gender roles have faded. In the past traditional roles have been based in their society by their biological orientation. (Magar, 2009) Gender roles can also be described as the behavior and attitudes that are expected of men and women in a society. (Faqs.org, 2011) Although different cultures impose different expectations, many cultures have the same basic gender roles. By the time we are 15 months old, we can already begin to establish gender behavior ourselves. (Gender Roles and Gender Differences. n.d.) This is an early and very important developmental time in our lives. What happens can mean a lot to how we perceive the worldShow MoreRelatedDoes Gender Role Norms Affect Behavior?1698 Words   |  7 PagesIn early childhood, children have already developed clearly defined ideas of what constitutes appropriate behavior for men and women (Blackmore, 2003; Mahalik et al., 2005). These ideas, called â€Å"gender role norms,† affect the way people believe they are supposed to act, think, and even feel depending on their sex (Mahalik et al., 2005). These norms can be learned through simple observation, such as how children of different sexes act in television commercials and what behaviors are reinforced byRead MoreGender Roles And Expectations Of Men And Women1009 Words   |  5 Pageshas been a trend of shift in roles and expectations of men and women. The shift was dynamic in the latter half of the twentieth century. World had been made a great stride in acquiring and adapting to the new definition of gender roles. These changes can be seen in the fields of education, media, economics as well as many other things. The reason for the change is a rapid increase in the number of women at workplaces-worldwide. Unlikely, this wave of change is not limited to developingRead MoreGender Equality1474 Words   |  6 PagesGender Equality Women have faced major discrimination when it comes to work and sometimes in education. Women decades ago had a wide range of opportunities denied to them due to their sex. Women have always been looked upon as the weaker sex and men as stronger and as the rulers. Women years ago were not seen as individuals, they were basically their husband’s slaves. Women were the ones to stay home, make dinner for their cranky and tired husband, look after their children, clean the house andRead MoreGender Roles in Vietnam761 Words   |  4 PagesChange, continuity and gender roles in Vietnam In detail, discuss how the gender roles of women and men in Vietnam have changed and continued over time and the causes of these changes. In addition outline how these changing gender roles have affected the status of both men and women in Vietnam. Vietnam is a country where gender roles are undergoing vast changes, especially the women’s status in the public spheres, which includes their educational attainment, earnings, occupational status, jobRead MoreGender Inequality Essay1121 Words   |  5 PagesGender Inequality In The Home Remains An Issue In Family Life. Gender inqualities often stem from social structures that have instiutionalized conceptions of gender differences. Gender inequality has been around for centuries. In many family homes, their lives evolve around gender roles. The responibilties in the family are allocated to their sex (gender). There are certain tasks which are usually allocated to males and females. Some see this division as biologolical differences between theRead MoreGender Roles Of The Indian Society1344 Words   |  6 Pagesus. In this process, families are introduced to certain roles that are characteristically connected to their birth sex. The term gender role refers to society s concept of how men and women are projected to behave. These roles are typically founded on customs or standards, fashioned and often enforced by society. In many cultures such as in the United States, male roles are usually related with power, and governance, while female roles are usually associated with passivity, fostering, and subordinationRead MoreThe Confusion Of Today s Culture1246 Words   |  5 PagesThe confusion in today’s c ulture about â€Å"roles† in marriage compels us to understand what unique responsibilities various cultures assign to a wife. With this, many cultures place a special emphasis on the headship granted to the husband and the role of subordination belonging to the wife. In various places, men have authority over their wives, in law and in practice. Modern values such as gender equality may be at odds with some traditions, one example being a traditional jewish marriage, which isRead MoreFor The Majority Of People, It Is Understood Before High1032 Words   |  5 Pagesunderstood before high school what the difference between sex and gender is. Sex refers to the biological differences at birth amongst males and females, but in today’s society the definition of gender is not so black and white. While the dictionary still incorrectly defines gender as, â€Å"the properties that distinguish organisms on the basis of their reproductive roles† the current meaning and pr oper definition of the word gender has evolved (†Gender†). Breaking free from the constraints placed by society andRead MoreGender Roles Of Women And Women1662 Words   |  7 Pages Gender Roles â€Å"Gender is the costume, a mask, a straightjacket in which men and women dance their unequal dance† (Kearl). Throughout history, women have been treated with unequal and unjust standards in comparison to their male counterparts. This paper will discuss gender roles in society and the stereotypes placed on men and women. As well as gender role development and the different influences that lead to these roles and stereotypes. Also, it will outline the history and progress of women’sRead MoreInterpreting Gender Roles, By Jeffrey Eugenides Essay1254 Words   |  6 PagesInterpreting Gender Roles The concept of gender roles is a system that has been created and enforced by tradition. Society has discovered a way to categorize and condemn those who do not fit or pertain to the characteristics of their gender. In Middlesex, a novel written by Jeffrey Eugenides, characters dilute the idea of being predisposed to gender roles by challenging them and generating the idea of â€Å"loosely defined† gender superiority in the era of the American Revolution. The American Revolution

Problems in American Education Free Essays

string(134) " It is these attitudes that contribute to the problems that Educators in this country face when trying to compete with other nations\." The American system of education has often been criticized in many circles. By objective measures, such as standardized test scores, the United States lags behind other industrialized nations in scores on subjects such as math and science. The most recent comparisons have the United States ranked sixteenth in a field of the thirty wealthiest nations in science. We will write a custom essay sample on Problems in American Education or any similar topic only for you Order Now (Glod, A07) They ranked twenty-third in the same field with respect to math scores. (Glod, A07) The regions with which these students were compared were, for the most part in Western Europe and East Asia. (Glod, A07) The popular American culture makes light of how uneducated the general population is. Shows like the Late Show with Jay Leno take to the streets and ask people relatively simple questions, which they cannot answer. Game shows such as â€Å"Are you Smarter than A Fifth Grader† make light of adult ignorance, and news organizations emphasize the problems in America’s schools. A close examination of the motives, methods and goals of public education in the United States along with a review of public attitudes toward learning shed light upon some of the reasons for the substandard reputation of America’s schools. It can be argued that in terms of economic benefits, our schools are adequately successful, but in terms of a social and cultural tool, American schools fall well short of their foreign counterparts, as well as their own stated goals. (Rebell, 37)The reasons for this are lack of proper funding, the treatment of teachers, and the localized control of schools attempting to achieve unrealistic Federal mandates. Schools in America across the board are under-funded. Many studies have demonstrated that the quality of education is greatly enhanced by low teacher-to-student ratios. The National Education Agency recommends a ratio of no more than 15 students per teacher in Elementary schools. (Roza, Miller Hill) Across the nation, the average class size for elementary school is 22-25 students per teacher. (Roza, Miller Hill) Given numerous studies that prove that the smaller ratio yields real, tangible improvements in math and science scores, it is clear that more qualified teachers and more facilities wherein they might teach are needed. (Roza, Miller Hill) These assets, however, cost money. (Roza, Miller Hill) The states and localities are expected to find money for schools, and the method of choice for funding schools has been the property tax. (Roza, Miller Hill) Coupled with the fact that schools generally serve the neighborhoods in which they are located, and the endemic problem becomes clear: Schools from poorer neighborhoods will have less money because property values are lower. (Roza, Miller Hill) Both the States and the Federal government have attempted, with limited success to solve these inadequacies. (Roza, Miller Hill) The federal government, through the Title I program, has allocated $18 billion to â€Å"fill the economic holes† in funding for impoverished districts, but these programs have failed, as the money is often either diverted, or never moved owing to loopholes in the existing laws. (Roza, Miller Hill) Federal studies have shown that school districts generally favor financially those schools who have the fewest challenges, and that Title I money is frequently funneled to schools with little or no financial need. (Roza, Miller Hill) Teacher pay is another area in which the lack of funds has hurt educational outcomes in America. Thirty-six states have a funding gap, with a nationwide dispar ¬ity between high-poverty and low-poverty districts of $1,348 per student. Funding gaps and the lack of progress in eliminating them continue to contribute to the overall lack of relative success in America’s public Schools. (Carey, K. ) In twenty-five of a forty-nine state study, the highest-poverty school districts get fewer re ¬sources than the lowest-poverty districts. (Carey, K. ) Even more states have a gap for high-minority districts, thirty-one in all. Those thirty-one states educate six out of every ten poor and minority children in America. The shortfalls, some exceeding $1,000 or even $2,000 per student, are greatly at odds with national goals for closing the achieve ¬ment gap. (Carey, K. ) They fly in the face of any reasonable, rational notion of how to support our public schools. (Carey, K. ) Until state policymakers get serious about fixing these problems, they can ¬not in good conscience pretend to have fulfilled their basic obligations to those students who are most in need of a high-quality public education. (Carey, K. ) Moreover, these numbers ac ¬tually understate the true extent of the problem because they don’t reflect the added cost of educating children in poverty. (Carey, K. ) School funding experts gener ¬ally agree that high-poverty schools need more resources to meet the same standards. (Carey, K. ) School funding comparisons that reflect this fact have been a mainstay of academic research and various technical analyses of school finance for a number of years. (Carey, K. ) Recent examples of such analyses include publi ¬cations from both the U. S. Department of Education and the U. S. Government Ac ¬countability Office. (Carey, K. ) The average teacher salary in the United States is between $39 and $43 thousand dollars a year, depending on location. (Average Salaries)It typically takes a four-year degree and additional study of content to qualify to be a teacher. (Porter, C) In contrast, other professionals with four-year degrees earn over twice that amount, particularly if their area of study is math or science –related. (Cowan, K. ) It shouldn’t be surprising, then, that qualified math and science teachers are in high demand. The money necessary to lure these types of people into education simply does not exist in the current budgets. Critics of this analysis argue that substantial raises in teacher pay would be â€Å"throwing money† at the problem, and over-compensating a population of underperforming teachers. (Porter, C) This argument is precious. The current population of teachers do not represent the best available, largely because of low salary; as better quality educators become available, the job market will become competitive, and with a very short time, the overall quality of those teachers would rise to the level appropriate to the pay. Related to the low salaries of the teachers are the cultural attitudes that America has toward schools, teachers and education. It is these attitudes that contribute to the problems that Educators in this country face when trying to compete with other nations. (Porter, C) Americans have long been used to the notion that a â€Å"free and appropriate† education for their children was a fundamental right. (Porter, C) As a result, many schools have devolved into nothing more than quasi-educational daycares for all American children. (Porter, C) The fact that American parents express more satisfaction with the schools than do their European and Asian counterparts illustrates the US cultural complacency with respect to education. (Porter, C) Students in these foreign schools work harder for a number of reasons. First, they are under more parental scrutiny, second, their cultures do not denigrate learning and academic achievement, and third, admission to favorable careers and higher education is based on close assessment of learning achievement in high school. (Bishop, J. ) In contrast, students in US schools do not recognize the benefits of education for a number of reasons. (Bishop, J. ) First, the U. S. labor market does not reward high school achievement. (Bishop, J. ) Statistics indicate that for the first eight years after high school, achievement does not correlate to increase in wages for the high school educated. (Bishop, J. ) Most employers do not look deeply at grades of high school graduates, and many schools do not send transcripts to prospective employers, even when requested to do so. (Bishop, J. ) Another key contributing factor to the lower expectations of benefit for American students in high school is the fact that college admissions are not based on high school performance as much as on aptitude tests. (Bishop, J. ) The result is that neither students nor parents are motivated to push for higher academic standards, since they would jeopardize GPA, SAT scores and class rank, the three key statistics examined for university admission (Bishop, J. ). The fact that parents and students to not regard the field of education as important in its own right is caused by several factors. The first is the sense of entitlement that parents have about education. (Bishop, J. ) They feel that students have a â€Å"right† not to learn, but to get a Diploma, go to college, and achieve the financial success associated with college education. (Porter, C. ) Parents and students across the board assume that this is an entitlement, rather than something to be earned through effort and ability. (Porter, C. ) The basic notion is that education is something â€Å"done to† a child, rather than something the child â€Å"does†. (Porter, C. ) This attitude, shared by parents, students and even some administrators dovetails into the lack of respect for educators that is reflected by poor pay. In no other profession, are professionals questioned, criticized and scrutinized by their clients than in education. (Porter, C. ) Despite teachers having obtained a four-year degree, additional training for teaching, and how ever many years of experience they might have, their clients (parents) are still convinced that they know more than the professionals as to how their student might learn. (Porter, C. ) The notion that â€Å"those who can’t do, teach† and the underlying notion that teachers have that job because they cannot do anything else contributes to this lack of professional respect. (Porter, C. ) Low salary validates this viewpoint. The underlying assumption is that if a teacher were competent, they would be doing something else that yields better pay. Often, this attitude is displayed by school administrators, who often treat teachers as fungible units of work, with little or no consideration for their abilities, expertise, experience or suggestions. (Porter, C. ) The fact that administrators are often acting according to governmental or budgetary guidelines does not detract from the perception created by their conduct. (Porter, C. ) In European cultures, as well as many Asian ones, the opposite assumption is held. Parents expect very high output from not only teachers, but students as well. (Bishop, J. ) The question is not â€Å"can you teach my child,† but rather, â€Å"can my child learn from you what he or she needs†. (Bishop, J. ) While salaries for European or Asian teachers may not be as high comparatively, the level of respect afforded to the profession is much higher. (Bishop, J. ) This begins with students believing and understanding that education is their responsibility, not that of their teachers. (Bishop, J. ) This causes the students to put in maximum effort to learn, which in turn solves a vast majority of the problems experienced in the American system. (Bishop, J. ) A teacher who is unable to perform in an environment of students who are highly motivated to learn is not competent, and would need to be retrained or replaced. (Bishop, J. ) The recognition of the real value of education by the public makes the raising of funds to pay for quality teachers and facilities much easier as well. Since all of the community and the government recognize the economic need for quality education, it is given budgetary priority. (Bishop, J. ) Despite these deficiencies, the political will to spend the money needed to improve schools is not present. When a study is done which ranks US education as below international standards, there is often an outcry, and much talk about improvement, but very little actually happens. The Federal government has issued edicts such as â€Å"No Child Left Behind† which articulates goals without a roadmap or funding to achieve them. (Neill, M. ) This mandate has contributed significantly to the inability of schools to meet their educational goals. It is taken as a given, even by proponents of the â€Å"No Child Left Behind† program that it is under funded, but that is just the tip of the iceberg in terms of this issue. (Neill, M. ) The federal government has, in this law, issued what is known as an â€Å"unfunded mandate† by insisting the States meet certain standards without providing the means to do so(Neill, M. ). This is merely one of numerous problems with the â€Å"No Child Left Behind† concept. (Neill, M. ) Modeling the concept after an initiative in Houston, the â€Å"No Child Left Behind† program has been unable to reproduce that success in other places. (Neill, M. ) Studies of the Houston plan show that the success illustrated there was never really present to begin with (Neill, M. ). Results were manipulated by excluding non-performing students from counts, and even with that provision, the race-gap was not addressed in Houston. (Neill, M. ) By dividing student groups up by race and other demographics, studies have also shown that the more diverse the culture of a school district, the less likely they are to meet the â€Å"No Child Left Behind† standards of achievement. (Neill, M. ) In fact, some studies have shown that given current demographic shifts, virtually all schools will eventually fall short of the improvement standards set by the initiative. (Neill, M. ) Since the sole measure in the â€Å"No Child Left Behind† initiative is standardized tests, the entire focus of education has become test preparation. (Neill, M. ) This narrows curriculum, and puts undue pressure on students, teachers and administrators. (Neill, M. ) It also forces curriculum away from higher level thinking skills which are far more useful assets for future academic, financial and social success. (Neill, M. ) â€Å"No Child Left Behind† demands that English-language-impaired and special-needs students meet proficiency standards without any means of making this happen. (Neill, M. ) The theory is that the mere institution of the requirement, coupled with the threat of punishment for failure, will force the schools to improve in this area. (Neill, M. ) By privatizing tutoring and support funding, â€Å"No Child Left Behind† not only takes money away from public schools, but also promotes the perception that failures of student performance are based on incompetent or lazy teaching, rather than anything associated with student efforts, or any other factor. (Neill, M. ) â€Å"No Child Left Behind† labels certain schools as failures, which causes the quality teachers within such schools to transfer out, and creates a difficult climate for the schools to recruit quality teachers. (Neill, M. ) The initiative in no way addresses socio-economic causes of academic struggles, making no effort to feed, clothe or house underachieving students in order to make them able to focus on academics. (Neill, M. ) Finally, the remedies offered by â€Å"No Child Left Behind† have failed to â€Å"fix† schools which prove to be â€Å"in need of improvement† according to their own standards. (Neill, M. ) In fact, the initiative actively prevents measures which have proven to offer improvement for schools with poor performance records. (Neill, M. ) Portfolio assessment, teacher training, proactive parent involvement, and other proven methods of improvement are shoved aside in favor of artificial standards based on tests that fail to address the actual goals of education, and whose contents are ridiculously unrepresentative of competent content. (Neill, M. ) Lack of proper funding, the treatment of teachers, and the localized control of schools attempting to achieve unrealistic Federal mandates have caused United States Schools to under perform in comparison to their European and Asian counterparts. The culture of contempt for education professionals and disengaged parents have created a system which is deeply flawed. Resolution of these problems would involve wholesale restructuring, massive rebuilding and huge amounts of money. Given the continued economic strength of the United States despite perennial failures in education, it is likely that the government will allow the â€Å"top ten percent† to gain benefits from public education, while everyone else, including parents, teachers, administrators and most students are left mired in a tangle of misguided regulation, spurious funding, unrealistic expectations and public contempt for their efforts. Bibliography â€Å"Average Salaries of Public School Teachers† The National Education Agency Website 2004-5 The National Education Agency 2002. http://www. nea. org/edstats/RankFull06b. htm Bishop, J. â€Å"Incentives for Learning: Why American High School Students Compare so Poorly to Their Counterparts Overseas† Center for Advanced Human Resource Studies (CAHRS) CAHRS Working Paper Series 1989. Accessed November 14, 2008. http://digitalcommons. ilr. cornell. edu/cgi/viewcontent. cgi? article=1399context=cahrswp Carey, C. â€Å"The Funding Gap 2004: Many States Still Shortchange Low-Income and Minority Students† The Education Trust Website 2004. The Education Trust. 2007. http://www2. edtrust. org/NR/rdonlyres/30B3C1B3-3DA6-4809-AFB9-2DAACF11CF88/0/funding2004. pdf Cowan, K. â€Å"List of Best Degrees by Salary† PayScale Website 2008 PayScale, Inc. 2000. http://blogs. payscale. com/salary_report_kris_cowan/2008/07/list-of-best-co. html Glod, M. â€Å"U. S. Teens Trail Peers Around World on Math-Science Test† The Washington Post Wednesday, December 5, 2007; Page A07 http://www. washingtonpost. com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/12/04/AR2007120400730. html Neill, M. â€Å"No Child Left Behind†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ After Two Years: A Track Record Of Failure† Time Out from Testing Website. 2008 Performance Assessment 2001 http://www. timeoutfromtesting. org/pr/PR_Neil_NoChildLeftBehind. pdf Porter, C. Interview (personal) 12 November, 2008. Rebell, M. â€Å"Professional Rigor, Public Engagement and Judicial Review: A Proposal for Enhancing the Validity of Education Adequacy Studies. † Teacher College Record Volume 109, Number 6, 2007 Pg. 1-73. http://www. schoolfunding. info/resource_center/research/professional_rigor. pdf Roza, M, Miller L. Hill, P. â€Å"Strengthening Title 1 to Help High-Poverty Schools† The University of Washington website 2005 The university of Washington,2008 http://uwnews. org/relatedcontent/2005/August/rc_parentID11695_thisID11712. pdf How to cite Problems in American Education, Papers

The construction and sustainable technology- MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Construction and Sustainable Technology. Answer: Introduction The building elements contain all elements that are part of the construction of a building primarily. Examples are walls, doors, beams, and they are tangible and exist physically. The following are some of the building elements that are used in contemporary commercial and domestic buildings: Foundation, Ground floor, Upper floors, Roof structure, Windows, and External Walls. The report is about the evolution of a building structure that is used in contemporary commercial and domestic buildings. The building element that is discussed in this report is the external walls(American Institute of Architects, 2016, p. 126). The construction of external walls defines the walls adjacent to the outside section of the building. This research paper is about the evolution of the external walls, environmental impacts, and alternative materials that can be used in the construction of external walls. Evolution of External walls In the period of early brick work, there were a number of improvements in making bricks during the 1700s. Better techniques of moulding blended clays, and more even firing resulted in greater uniformity in the size and shape of the brick. In late 1600, the popular colours of the bricks were purples and reds which gave way to softer colour brown in the 1730s. By 1800, the production of stocks of yellow London provided the colour of the brick not much different from natural stone. The machines of moulding and improved mixing together with best techniques for firing enabled the production of brick to attain new heights(Architects, 2009, p. 158). The bricks were obtainable in different types of shapes, colour, and strength that would not have been imagined previously in a hundred years. The better techniques of quarrying enabled extraction of deeper clays which produce dense and strong bricks utilized in works of civil engineering such as bridges and canals(Architects, 2007, p. 269). Brick Bonding was the next stage after early brick work. By the end of 19th century, a majority of the houses possess walls of a single brick thickness. Houses of storeys had walls that are thicker normally reducing in thickness at every level of the upper floor. The majority of the houses were built in a bond of Flemish even though few walls or walls were hidden by render were mostly laid in a bond of garden-wall(Beadle, 2013, p. 147). The stonework was the next stage after brick bonding. The stone was normally used in regions where it occurred naturally or for prestige. In upland areas, a stone was the obvious choice for building because it was available readily. There are three categories of stones which include sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic. Sedimentary group comprise of sand stones and limestone which accounts for most of the stones used in the construction. Rubble walling is found in numerous styles at its cheapest.(California, 2013, p. 159). In a majority of cases, a stone wall has to be thicker than a brick-wall. The stone-work which is dressed or cut finely is normally referred to as dimension stone or free stone; meaning that it can be worked with a saw and a chisel in any direction. It is free from laminations and has fine grains and is pronounced bedding plains. During the 18th century, the whole city was rebuilt and build with stones. It was economical to build the whole wall in free stone and a backing material or brick work(Christensen, 2017, p. 219).In a majority of houses, only the elevation of the front side will be built in free stone, the back and sides being built with bricks or rubble. The bonding stones were used in bonding the two halves of the walls together. These structures were made with mortar of lime that slowly became hardened. Hydraulic lime was unknown and was not common since they were expensive. Also, they always set quickly leading to more wastage on the site(Christensen, 2017, p. 193). The mortar was the next stage after stonework. The lime mortar was available until the 1930s. Chalk or limestone was burnt with coal to form quick lime that was mixed with water and with fine aggregates to form the motor. Alternative choice was to utilize lime which has silica naturally. During the 1930s and 1940s, motor cement replaced lime. Lime was normally added to the mix to improve its quality, durability, and working(Doug Oughton, 2010, p. 239). Pointing followed the mortar as the next stage in construction. In the periods of early 1900s, the joints were normally finished flush or recessed slightly. The joints were normally eight millimetres or less where better quality bricks were used. This, together with the use of dust brick in a motor meant that the motor had little effect on the appearance of the building. Tuck-pointing was reserved for the best work quality. It can be categorized into two parts which are bedding-motor which contain an aggregate to match with the brick's colour or a thin ribbon and stonework of line pointing to end the joint(Engineer, 2012, p. 217). The diagram below shows the 19th-century pointing: Cavity Walls followed the pointing as the next stage in construction. Many houses were built with cavity walls in the 19th century. The cavity walls were very cheap to build than the counterparts which are made of solid walls. Also, they offer improved thermal insulation and good protection from harsh weather. The brickwork of external leaf was built in facing brick and the interior leaf in common. The little cavity walls of early had an exterior leaf which has a thickness of one brick and in some form of the building. The diagram below shows an example of early cavity walls(Stein, 2009, p. 148). The 1930s to 1960s external wall followed the cavity walls in construction. During this time, the walls of cavity changed significantly. The motors became cement based instead of lime based since the faster motor setting made the construction to be faster. For the inner leaf of cavity walls, the common material was block-work. The blocks were made with the industrial waste or aggregate stone. During this time, several houses were built in construction style which was not traditional styles by the use of panels or frames of pre cast; in some occasion, insitu panels(Smith, 2016, p. 193). The 1970s to 1980s external walls was the next stage of evolution of the external walls. During the 1970s, there was a slow improvement of standard insulation, the optimum value of U of 1.70 was introduced to find out the ability of the wall to heat transmission. To achieve this level was very easy; a brick exterior leaf, cavity of 50 millimetres, plus block interior leaf that is dense completed with 13-millimeter plaster of light-weight. In 1980, the optimum value of U decreased to one; this needed block-work of light weight in inner leaf. From this period up to date, the blocks of light weight have been made from concrete which is aerated. They were made from lime, cement, sand, and powder of aluminium. After these constituents are combined with boiling water, the powder of aluminium mixes with lime to form the pockets of hydrogens which are minute(Siegenthaler, 2012, p. 197). Modern Cavity walls formed the next stage of evolution of the external walls. During the 1990s, the optimum value of U reduced further to 0.45 which usually needed a thick inner leaf that is lightweight or insulation cavity. There are three choices, which need lightweight or block which is aerated in the interior leaf. They include the cavity with a dry lining that is insulated, insulation board that partially fills the cavity, and insulation batts which fill the cavity. There is a possibility of building walls which are solid but not using the bricks, the accepted level of insulation can be gotten only by aerated concrete. The modern cavity wall has a U value six or five times better than the counterparts of the 1920s(Portman, 2014, p. 279). Also, the cavity widths have increased beyond 50 millimetres eighty years ago. Wall Tires followed modern cavity walls in construction. Wall tires are the common stainless steel. There are numerous patterns which include the washer for holding insulation board in position against the inner leaf. Modern Mortars followed the wall tires as the next stage of evolution of the external walls. Modern mortars are made from sand and cement. Lime which is hydrated is introduced frequently into the mixture to give out the full of plastic and to make it much workable. Lime improves the ability of the motor to deal with moisture and thermal movement. Recently, it has become common to use the pre-mixed mortar. These are distributed to the site in containers which are sealed and ready for use. They normally have retarder and remain usable for 36 hours to 48 hours of more(Lars Engstrom, 2010, p. 169). At the termination of this time, they improve on strength as normal mortars. The joint phase may be completed in many ways, the most common are joints that are tooled where the pressing of the mortar occurs to the brick-work and give the best protection of the weather since the tooling compresses and smoothers the joint. Environmental Impacts of External Walls The environmental impacts of the components making up the external walls can be categorized in terms of its design, selection, manufacture, maintenance, disposal, reuse, installation, and use. Use and Selection The components making the external walls have numerous impacts on the environment when they are used in the constructions as explained in this section. The solution of clay brick may be better since the components used in making it by the manufacturers are all environmental friendly; the components include the clay soil and water. The structure of a concrete wall could have poor performance on the environment than the bricks of clay in terms of wood emission to the water, and also emission from the materials used during the construction(Stein, 2009, p. 124). The solution of a concrete block may have good performance on the environment than the solution of the clay brick in terms of climatic change and the consumption of energy and water. The solution of auto-craved aerated concrete could have a good performance of the environment than the clay bricks or concrete blocks that are normal in acidification of the atmosphere, production of inert waste, and emission to the air but bad in the water consumption. Disposal The disposal of the components of the clay bricks has less environmental effects when disposed of compared to the normal concrete block since the components making the clay brick can be disposed of without any effect on the environment.The structure of a concrete wall could have poor performance on the environment than the bricks of clay in terms of wood emission to the water, and also emission from the materials used during the construction due to the production of cement.(Robert Judson Clark, 2016, p. 214). The solution of auto-craved aerated concrete could have a good performance of the environment when disposed of than the clay bricks or concrete blocks that are normal in acidification of the atmosphere, production of inert waste, and emission to the air but bad in the water consumption. The timber wall of lightweight may have good performance to the environment when disposed of than the concrete blocks, clay, structural concrete or walls of the steel frame in terms of the consumption of energy, global warming, and emissions to soil and air. The cellular concrete can be used in covering rubble without polluting the soil.(Austroads Limited, 2013, p. 187). Reuse Some of the components of the external walls may be reused with less waste being released into the atmosphere while other components cannot be reused at all. The solution of clay brick can be recycled after being in a construction for a long duration hence making it environmentally friendly. The clay bricks may often be reclaimed for re-use during the demolition of the structure. The re-use of the structures made of concrete is a method of utilizing the rabble. The re-use has a benefit that makes it more attractive and friendly to the environment. The auto-craved aerated concrete may be reused though the application may cause a problem due to a high amount of sulphate that is leachable and are not friendly to the environment. The re-use of the wooden boxes of wall frames can add details which are unique to the walls decoration and are environmentally friendly. The re-use of timber wall is environmentally friendly since the timbers are chipped into wood chips and are used in power plants or power homes. The re-use of timber wall is a more sustainable. The re-use of cellular concrete is economical since it utilizes reusable materials and also have characteristics which prevent the increase in deterioration(California, 2013, p. 236). The Manufacture During the manufacture of the components used in making the external wall, there are some environmental impacts faced in the processes. In the manufacture of clay brick, the environmental impacts that will be observed include the interference of the soil structure, emission of smoke to the atmosphere leading to the destruction of the ozone layer, and deforestation when woods from trees are used to make the clay bricks. This solution could have a lower performance of the environment than a normal concrete block in this environmental category. The manufacture of blocks and bricks in either concrete or clay utilized energy, however, the investment of embodied energy is repaid by longevity of the material. During the manufacture of clay brick, the emission of huge elements that are toxic from the bricks causes the environmental and health hazard. In the manufacture of the concrete wall, the process of making cement results to the high level of carbon dioxide emission which is not friendly to the environment. During the manufacture of frame wall, the production of carbon monoxide, phenol, and formaldehyde which irritate the environment causing acidification of the air. The manufacture of timber wall has a high environmental impact, the combustion of fossil fuel leads to the environmental degradation and global warming(Littlefield, 2010, p. 269). Maintenance A properly constructed and designed brick work need little maintenance since it will not require another coating or painting in managing the moisture.The maintenance of clay brick and the concrete wall should be done through proper measures since any release to the atmosphere may lead to global warming, change in climate, acidification, inert waste production, emission to the atmosphere, and consumption of energy(Galinsky, 2010, p. 169). Installation During the installation of autoclaved aerated concrete as it rains, it can crack after the installation and cause the environmental degradation. The installation of cellular concrete reduces the amount of excavation, minimize site disruption, reducing carbon, saving time, and money hence fewer effects on the environment. Local production reduces distances for shipping building materials, minimize the requirements for fuel for handling and transportation hence reducing carbon dioxide emission. The installation of cellular concrete, concrete block, timber wall, and frame wall should be carried out properly since improper misuse may lead to a change in climate, acidification, emission to the atmosphere, and consumption of energy(Engineer, 2012, p. 247). Selection The selection of the components to use in building the external wall is based on the effects of the components will have on the environment. The cellular concrete is a light weight concrete that is good for environmentally friendly building. It is made by combining air, lime, water, cement, and sand. The aluminium powder reacts with lime to release hydrogen gas to create the air bubbles. After hardening, the materials density becomes fair and contain numerous bubbles of air and produces thermal features. The cellular concrete and the wooden structures should be selected during the construction of the external walls(Mike Riley, 2013, p. 247). Alternative materials to use in External Walls The alternative building materials that can be used in constructing an environmentally friendly external walls include wooden structure, cellular concrete, insulating load bearing clay brick, and euromac structure. The reason why they are considered as alternative choices for constructing external walls are explained below: Wooden structure: Wood occupies a place in green building approach. There are numerous different possible terms of wooden structure. The walls can be made using beams of solid wood, walls will laminated timber, and glued, and wooden structures of the frame which is good for the environment of urban as they look identical in conventional construction.(California, 2013, p. 168). Wood naturally protects itself since it contains polyphenol which has the effects of disinfectants. It is also a good hygrometric and thermal regulator. Insulating load bearing clay brick: The bricks are becoming important in the approach of green building. It does not need insulating cladding on either outside or inside sides. It has admirable performance since it is durable and resistance to regulation. The brick of insulating clay gives technology that makes deployment simple(American Institute of Architects, 2016, p. 198). It emits nontoxic gases in the event of combustion. The brick is involved in the absorption of heat from the system of heating and redistribute it through the process of radiation and hence reduce the consumption of energy. Euromac structure: This system of construction consists of two cladding insulation wall made of a high density of expanded polystyrene joined by two spacer metals that are reinforced in their lateral part by flat bands of metals. The concrete is then poured in the cladding up to 3.5 meters. This system of the wall is protected from seismic and have a variable width and properties of thermal insulation which provides insulation and effect from fire depending on the wall's thickness.(Siegenthaler, 2012, p. 136). Cellular concrete: This is a light weight concrete that is good for a sustainable building. It is made by combining air, lime, sand, cement, and water. The powder of aluminium reacts with lime to release hydrogen gas to produce the bubbles of air. After hardening, the material's density becomes fair and contain numerous bubbles of air and produces thermal features. The cellular concrete can be recycled and can be used in covering rubble without polluting the soil.(Christensen, 2017, p. 278). Conclusion The building elements that are used in contemporary domestic and commercial buildings include foundation, ground floor, upper floors, roof structure, and windows. This report specifies on the evolution of external wall which is an important building element. The evolution of the external wall followed the sequence starting from early brickwork, brick bonding, stonework, mortar, pointing, cavity walls, the 1930s to 1960s, 1970s to 1980s, modern cavity walls, wall ties, and modern mortars. It is necessary to consider the future development potential of the external wall that has been discussed below: Future development potential of the external wall The following are some of the technologies which will be used in future for the development of the external wall: Technologies for remodeling the external walls: This would be the case for curtain walls for high constructions or part of walls in the flats or residential blocks. This procedure will make it possible to reach large sections of buildings with a crane of the building which could be beneficial when a large part of the building is remodeled(Mike Riley, 2013, p. 138). Technologies for applying exterior layers: External insulation is the preferred method for adding insulation to the building which is exciting. This method minimizes the loss of space since it is possible to work which the building is in use and also avoid moisture problem and thermal bridge. Technology for inserting material in cavities in the walls which are existing: Walls with cavity can improve their temperature property when the materials are put inside these cavities. This will be the future development of the external wall. Technology for applying interior insulation: The new part of the construction will be made to the carrying system of the external existing wall, floor dividers, and internal bearing wall(Christensen, 2017, p. 159). The environmental effects of the external wall include climate change, global warming, acidification, eutrophication, and atmospheric emissions. The alternative materials that can be used in the construction of the external wall include euromac structure, wooden structure, insulating load bearing clay brick, and cellular concrete. Bibliography Abdelmonem, D. M. G., 2015. The Architecture of Home in Cairo: Socio-Spatial Practice of the Hawari's Everyday Life. India: Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. Alan Blanc, M. M. R. P., 2013. 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